Being A Responsible Hunter - Best Article

Hunting , fur harvesting, trapping, these are just some of the ways to enjoy the outdoors. However, with this privilege comes great responsibility. Being a responsible hunter, you need to know the national, state and local laws as well as the ethical rules of hunting. All states have hunting laws. These laws were put in place to protect wildlife, and wildlife habitat, as well as keep hunting safe, competitive. Laws concerning Safety are the most important to memorize and practice. The best place to educate yourself about these rules and laws is in a nationally approved Hunter's Education Program in your state.

Hunter Safety Education began in New York in 1949, where because of the high number of hunting accidents, the National Rifle Association in conjunction with the State of New York developed a safety program and required all new hunters to pass the course before hunting in the state of New York. In 1950, the National Rifle Association began certifying instructors who began teaching classes without pay. These programs were then and are now being taught by volunteers, dedicated men and women whose primary goals are to educate hunters in safety to reduce hunting accidents, promote ethical hunting, and teach basic wildlife conservation and encourage appreciation of the state’s wildlife resources.

The hunter's education program by law must be a minimum of 10 hours long. Usually they are 12 or more hours long, held over a 2 day period. A student must pass the course in order to become certified. There is a written test as well as hands-on demonstrations on a safe range with supplied weapons. States will offer these courses periodically through the year, seasonally from April –October and in numerous locations. In today’s busy world, some states, like Kansas are now offering a special internet-assisted course. Check with your state parks office, website or hunter education manual for details.

Most states now require any new hunter to take an approved hunter's education course, no matter the hunter’s age. In 1972, Kansas passed a law making hunters education mandatory for anyone born on or after July 1, 1957.And persons younger than 27 must carry a certificate of the course completion while hunting in the state of Kansas. The good news is that since beginning the nationwide education program there has been a decline in hunting related accidents. Since 1973, more than 410,000 students have been certified by the volunteer educators of the Hunter’s Education Program. The Hunter's Education Program is an important part of being a responsible hunter and can benefit anyone willing to learn.

Summer Training For Sled Dogs

Summer training for sled dogs? Is this possible? Believe it or not, it is! Whether people have sled dogs for fun, for racing, or for commercial tours in the winter, the dogs still need to exercise and prepare for their winter sport, just like humans.

Depending on the location, the sled dogs often get a break in the summer and not much exercise. If this is the case, the handlers (dog trainers) will usually start training them in the late summer. As they are out of shape this time of year, the handlers have to be careful to not let them run too hard or they may injury themselves. It is similar to a person getting off the couch to exercise after several months off, one needs to take it easy at first to avoid pulling or straining muscles or ligaments.

To the untrained eye, this is more difficult than it sounds. It is because of the time off that the dogs are fired up and eager to run. Sled dogs returning to training are similar to kids returning to school, in that the discipline after summer break is somewhat lacking.

The handlers start by hooking up the dogs in small groups. This helps with discipline training, as it is easier for the handler keep control over them. Another reason for hooking up small groups at a time (as opposed to winter when they hook up large groups) is that more dogs get experience with being the lead dog, and the handlers can rotate them around to see in what position the dogs perform best.

Often handlers will hook the dogs up to four wheelers, also known as ATV’s (all terrain vehicles). They will let the dogs pull the ATV while they sit on it. This way they can start working on the commands for the dogs, in conjunction with their exercise. Another method of exercising dogs is to take them out one at a time hooked up to a bicycle, with someone on it. This works well for a person that has a small group of dogs.

To avoid overtraining, handlers will start with small distances, a mile or less for adult dogs, less than half a mile for puppies. They won’t run them everyday, so they have plenty of time off to rest those doggy muscles. As the sled dogs start to get in shape, they will increase the distances they train. All throughout this process, the handlers will stop frequently to give the dogs a break and to train them that stopping is also part of the process and that they are expected to do this quietly. This is a challenge in itself as sled dogs are easily excited and like to bark. Without this part of the training no person could be expected to control the dog team on snow.

The temperature is another important factor in the training schedule. If it is over 60 Farenheit, training shouldn’t happen. The dogs could easily overheat and get dehydrated, especially if it’s humid. With daytime temperatures this high, handlers may chose to train at dawn or sundown, as the dogs shouldn’t be in direct sunshine either.

It is a careful process to train sled dogs and even the training surface must be taken into consideration. Soft earth is best, pavement a definite no! Sled dogs and their handlers deserve a lot of respect for their time spent training together to become a well honed team.

Explanation and examination of hit and run play in baseball

Baseball is a game of individuals and confrontations between individuals. At that moment when the pitcher stares into the catcher's mitt, scratches himself, gets into his windup, and fires the pitch home, it's all between him and the batter. There may fielders in set and ready position on the field, baserunners languishing off their bases, and teammates and coaches watching anxiously from the dugout, but during those few nanoseconds of drama, baseball becomes a two player game. Likewise, on virtuall any play - a flyball, a grounder, a popup etc. - all attention focuses only on the fielder and perhaps the runner that he will attempt to throw out. All plays that is, except for the hit-and-run.
Simply put, a hit and run is a play in which a runner on any base (usually first) takes off as soon as the pitcher releases the ball, and the batter at the plate attempts to make contact no matter what kind of pitch he gets and wherever it's thrown. Withe exception of a double steal, the hit and run is the only play in which two players on the offensive team work in conjunction with one another. The coach or manager who makes the call must take care to select an instance in which the runner can get decent jump and the pitcher throws a good pitch to hit. The batter must make every attempt to put the ball in play, or if he cannot, do anything he can to "protect the runner"; meaning he must time and place his swing accurately enough to block the catcher's ability to see the fielder covering second and throw accurately. Obviously, the hitter and runner both have to be aware that they will be attempting to execute a hit and run and the pitcher has to be careful to both hold the runner and throw a good catch, making a hit-and-run one of the few instances in which the action and confrontation expand past the usual one-on-one format.
As with all risky actions in life, the hit-and-run can yield great dividends or cause great losses for the team attempting to execute it. The advantages of a successful hit and run include allowing the baserunner to take an extra base on a base hit or break up a double play on a groundball. The disadvantages include minimizing the effectiveness of a good hitter (since he's forced to swing, no matter what comes at him), or worse, causing a strike-em-out-throw-em-out double play if the batter is unsucces
ul at making contact. That can totally destroy a potentially big inning. As a result, the-hit-and-run is generally executed only when there's a good runner on base and an above average hitter at the plate. One would not, for example, expect to see Luis
jo executing the "hit" part of a hit-and-run with Cecil Fielder on the basepaths. As a matter of fact, you wouldn't likely see the free-swinging and oft-missing Fielder involved in a hit-and-run play from either vantage point. But, to use another exampl
from the 1996 World Champions, two current Yankees who might have a higher likelihood of implementing a successful hit-and-run together are Wade Boggs, who despite being 169 years old remains one of the purest hitters in the game and can consistently be
elied upon to put the ball in play, and Bernie Williams, one of the fastest runners on the team. Their combined contact ability and swiftness make them perhaps the quintessential example of a model hit-and-run duo.
It should be noted however, that speed is not the only skill required for the player attempting the tail end of the hit-and-run to be successful. Since the runner is flying down the basepaths at full speed with all of his adrenaline flowing, he must be
ble to make a lightning quick shift of gears and go back to his original base, against his momentum, if the situation should call for it (i.e. linedrive or popup). Therefore, in addition to speed, he must also be a smart baserunner, able to make instan
neous decisions and act on them rapidly. That decision alone, whether to take another base, stand at the current one, or backtrack to the previous one, can in some cases be the deciding factor in determining the outcome of a play, an inning, or an entir
game. And that is what makes Williams, with his five years of big-league experience, a better hit-and-runner (with emphasis on the "runner") than rookies Derek Jeter and Andy Fox, who may have more speed, but lack baserunning smarts.
A manager must consider a myriad of other factors besides the hitter and runner(s) involved when determining whether or not to call for a hit-and-run. "Who do I have due up next? What hitters do I have on the bench? How good is the opposition's pitcher
and of what quality are the arms available in their bullpen? What's the score? How many outs are there? How late in the game is it? What is the morale of my team/ability to come back from behind?" A good manager will consider all of these questions and
re before deciding to call for a hit-and-run.. If he sees that he has a bunch of solid contact hitters due up, he may not want to increase the chance of an out by calling for a hit and run. On the other hand, with two outs and the bottom of the order co
ng up, he may want to call for the risky play even with a runner of only average speed on the base paths. A tie or one run game in the late innings may prompt a manager to risk going for the extra base as well. So clearly, the hit-and-run is not a play
at should be called for haphazardly without considering all seemingly extraneous factors, which in reality are crucial and fundamental in determining the sensibility of calling for a hit-and-run. Knowing how to understand and take advantage of them to t
utmost, vis-à-vis the hit and run and other strategies, separates a Joe Torre, a World Series championship manager who is confident in his ability to gauge potential hit-and-run situations and capitalize on them, from a Buck Showalter, a much more cons
vative manager, who, perhaps because he didn't know how and when to use the hit-and-run effectively, rarely called for it, and eventually lost his job.
All in all, the excitement of a hit-and-run is pretty much unparalleled in baseball. For those who complain that it's a boring sport, the hit-and-run provides running, hitting, pitching, defensive maneuvering, and throwing all on one play. It can also
as climacteric as it is dramatic; successful or unsuccessful implementation of the hit-and-run can often be the difference between triumphant victory or crushing defeat. It may well be the most strategy oriented, thought provoking element of the game.
e hit-and-run expands baseball beyond the one-on-one confrontations that some people may perhaps find unappealing about the game, and keeps everyone on his toes.

Floor Exercise

Floor exercise is a sequence of tumbles, leaps, and balances, which make a gymnastics performance. No equipment is used, only a mat and open space. At competitions, judges look for good posture, proper technique, continuity, and variety.

Floor exercise builds confidence and character. Your self confidence increases as you learn body control. As you become involved you will gain self discipline. You will learn valuable lessons about exercise, eating correctly, and getting the proper amount of rest, leading to a healthy and longer life.
Competitive acrobatics have various levels at which people can participate and gain recognition for achievements. Most important, floor exercise is fun. More challenging the than other activities.
Tumbling is considered the basis of all acrobatics. Although it is not one of the four Olympic competitive events, tumbling is important because the skills you learn will help you perform the other events. For example, the basic forward roll can also be performed on the balance beam and in the floor exercise, and is important even when learning the vault and the uneven bars.

The best way to learn floor exercise is through progressions. A progression is a step by step method of learning skills, beginning with the easy ones and gradually mastering the more difficult ones. If you wanted to learn a forward somersault, you would not just start out trying to do the somersault. Instead, you would learn a whole series of skills one by one, moving along to the next one only after you mastered the first. It is important to be patient when learning floor exercises through progressions. Do not move on to the next skill in the progression until you and your coach have determined that you are ready. This method will allow you to learn a large number of skills while having fun and developing confidence.
If you find a skill to be particularly difficult to learn, perhaps you are trying to take too big of a step, or too many, in your progression. Ask your coach for assistance. She or he can almost always give you smaller steps that will help you reach your goal.
In learning acrobatics or any other sport it requires that you also learn the language of the sport. The language of acrobatics is quite complicated. For example, a forward roll is done on the ground, but a forward somersault or salto is done in the air. Someone might think that you have learned a front flip, but you will know that this is really a salto.

Floor exercise is fun and one of the best overall physical fitness activities that there is provided that you and your coach use common sense and pay attention to the rules of safety. This sport involves flipping and twisting. Therefore floor exercise carries a risk of physical injury. No matter how careful you and your coach are, no matter how many spotters are use, the risk cannot be eliminated. Reduced, but never eliminated.
The risk of injury in floor exercise includes minor injuries such as bruises and serious injuries such as broken bones, dislocations and muscle pulls. Unfortunately, as in practically every sport the risk also includes very serious injuries, such as permanent paralysis or even death from landing or falls onto the back, neck, or head.
It is important for you to learning floor exercise from a good coach in a well-equipped gym and to listen carefully to your coach and follow the safety rules that your gym has set.
There are things that you can do to make sure that floor exercise is safe:

1. Never participate unless you have a proper supervisor. Every floor exercise class, practice, or workout should be supervised by a trained teacher or coach.
2. Dress appropriately. Use chalk, handgrips, tape and protective body equipment where needed. When in doubt, consult your instructor.
3. Communicate clearly with your coach. Make sure that you both know exactly what, when, where, how, and why you are to perform a particular skill and how you will be spotted. If you have questions, ask.
4. Be sure that you are feeling physically, as well as mentally, at your best and ready to perform. Total fitness is very important for safe floor exercise.
5. Master the basic skills first. Do not try to skip ahead and move too fast. Follow the steps your teacher lays out for you to learn skills. Be sure to know the skill. This includes having a clear idea of what the skill is and knowing how to begin, execute, and complete the entire movement.
6. Always follow through. Once you commit to performing a skill, follow through to its completion.
7. Finally, know your limitations. You should develop a healthy awareness and respect for what you can do and what you cannot do in learning and performing floor exercise. Don't be impatient. There is plenty to learn and plenty of time in which to learn it.

The Forward Roll
1. Start from a squatting position
2. Place the hands at shoulder width on the ground.
3. Duck the head under, while pushing off with the legs.
N.B. The weight of the body should be carried by the arms as long as possible, until the upper back and shoulders make contact.

The Backward Roll
1. Start from a squatting position with hands at shoulder with on the ground.
2. Rock forward, and then push off backwards quickly.
3. When the hands leave the ground, move the arms backwards while rolling, and keep the knees and chin tucked.
4. Place the hands above the shoulders, and roll over onto the feet.

The Back Extension
1. Start in same position as backward roll.
2. Raise the legs upward, and lift yourself onto the hands.
3. Snap out of the position by lowering both legs at the same time.

Game Over

As I stood at the three point line, the ball seemed to be in slow motion. Screams from the crowd came as the ball dropped through the net. Not only did this shot go in but it dropped through the net with such force that it made a sound that was heard throughout the gym. The gym was packed and the fans were on their feet, I had just hit my first three pointer of my varsity basketball career. As our team set up the
press, sweat dripped from my face. I was close enough to kiss my opponent, there was no way he was going to get the ball. He shoved me backward and he planted his foot on mine, he then pushed off and ran for the inbounder. I fell back a few feet and sprinted towards my man. As the inbounder released the ball with a firm push I stuck my handout in hopes for a steal, SNAP! As the ball was deflected towards the right my
man ran and picked it up. I quickly looked down at my finger and with fear and pain walked over to my bench. My pinkie-finger on my right hand was at a ninety degree ankle, as sweat dripped down may face I could feel myself getting hot. My stomach seemed to drop and I was feeling as if I was on a roller coaster. The game had been stopped and I was brought into the coaches room. My assistant coach led me into the
room and sat me down on a wooden chair. I began to feel very cold, and my finger began to have a shooting pain. This pain was not present before and was no making itself known that there was something wrong with.
My parents entered the room, my mother carrying a face that I never had seen before. My father with a calm collective look to him. The assistant then began to explain that there was to deal with this, either go to the hospital and miss the game or deal with it write in the room.
My mother stared over at my coach when he relayed this message to me and my father seem to agree with my coach. I looked at my coach with eyes of trust and horror, and then laid my hand in his. He then took his hand and placed it over my pinkie. Which by now was swelling and extremely painful, he then got a firm grip and with one quick tug my finger was now vertically correct. My coach then looked at me with bulging eyes and asked how it felt. Being the starting point guard on my schools varsity team there was no way I was going to say that I needed to leave the game. With a convincing nod and a energetic response I was on my way back onto the court. I reentered the game and the crowd began to applaud, I was so nervous. It was like the first time I had ever played basketball in front of a crowd. The game resumed and I ran down the court, my finger throbbed and I could not help but think of it. My teammates snapped the ball quickly over to me and I caught it. I felt like dropping the ball and running to the sideline but instead I got rid of the ball as soon as I could. I then proceeded to run over to the sideline and with a look of pain in my eyes I let my coach know that I needed to come out of the game. As I sat there and
watched my team lose the game I could not decide if I was hurting more from my finger or form the fact that I was not in there helping my team.
As the coach was screaming and yelling in the locker room I could not



help but think about my finger, the pain was no shooting down my arm and



I was praying that I did not break it. I showered and proceeded to get



dressed. Each time I buttoned a button on my shirt I would get a



shooting pain, I began to believe that I should go to the hospital but I



did not want to let anyone know. I walked up the steps and there were



my parents, my Mom gave me a look of compassion and she seemed very



concerned. Sternly, my father said that I should o to the hospital but



with a convincing tone of voice I talked them out of it. I went home



that night and stayed up thinking about the possibility that I might



have a broken finger. As I dazed off to sleep I repeated to myself that



things were going to be O.K.



I woke up in some pain but I thought nothing of I because injuries are



always worse the day after. It was Saturday so I had a couple of days



to rest my finger, by mid-afternoon my finger as throbbing like it had



just been hit by a hammer. At this time I decided that I needed to go



to the emergency room. My father and I hopped into the 95 Mazda 626 and



of to the hospital we went. On the ride there several things were going



though my mind, although I was very optimistic. At most I thought I



would miss a month or so, and that was absolute tops. I got to the



hospital and filled out paperwork. Actually I filled out endless pages



of paperwork that was quite painful to my finger. About twenty minutes



later a short, skinny blond hair nurse came out and with a soft voice



said "Sheahan." I then got up and with a nervous step in my walk



proceeded to the examination room. I took a seat and the nurse asked to



see my finger. She gently touched my finger. With a stare that made me



nervous, replied "this does not look good." With a threatened voice I



said" What do you mean," she then pointed out to me that the top part



of my finger was twisted to the left. My knuckle was twice the size of



any other one on my finger and it had a blue color to it, the kind of



blue you see when you have been bruised very badly. I had notice this



before but I had failed to make a big deal of it, then the doctor walked



in. He was a tall man with a thick mustache and thick brown hair. He



opened his mouth and the words "how did you do this?" came out. I



replied in a basketball game and he then began to take a look at my



finger. He had a look of concern on his face and before I knew it I was



gong to have my fingered x-rayed. I had this done which took all of ten



minutes and then he returned with the results. I had been siting there



in anticipation of the results. I was on the edge of my seat waiting for



his return. Then the door opened slowly and the doctor walked in. He



took a seat next to me and with a calm voice said" It looks as if you



are going to need surgery." I almost fell out of my seat this would



mean that I would miss just about my whole season. Me, the starting



point guard out for the season. I looked at my father with hope and



desperation hoping that he would have some advice to give me. What could



he say the doctor had given his diagnosis and he was right. The doctor



then proceeded with a stern convincing voice to say that I had shattered



the bones in my right pinkie finger. I would have to have surgery to



pin these bones back together, the process is going to take about two



and half hours. I picked myself up off the floor and my dad and I got



back into the Mazda and drove home. I was extremely quite on the way



home and felt as if all my hard work and preparation for this basketball



season was for nothing. Although my father tried to keep my hopes up it



was not having any effect on me. The trip to hospital was one that I



regretted and in two weeks form then, would be paying for in the



operating room.



The weekend seemed to drag on forever and finally Monday rolled around.



Throughout school I had shooting pains in my finger and all I could



think about was what exactly my coach was going to say when I gave him



the news that I was going to be out for six weeks. The day ended and I



packed my school bag as usual, I then headed for basketball practice. I



got there and everyone came up to me asking ho my finger was, I



responded with an upset disappointing tone, that I would be out for six



weeks. The team was as surprised as I was when I heard the noise.



Although the team felt bad, they were not the ones that were going to



have the doctor cut open their finger, and pin tiny bones back together.



I had stay on the sidelines and watch the team day in and day out play



the game that I loved so much. The worst of it was that I had to watch



someone fill my spot, a spot that I had worked long hours for in the



summer. Someone was just going to step in and take the spot that I had



reserved for myself. That was worse than the pain of my finger or the



surgery I had to go through.



The day had come, and I woke up extremely early that mourning. I was



not allowed to eat anything and as I was driving in with my father my



stomach was growling. We arrived at the hospital and I checked in at



the front desk, a rather large women with brown hair took the



information that they needed. They brought me into a room and had me



put on a johnny. You know, one of those pieces of clothing that shows



your ass to the world. I cam out of the bathroom and they had brought

in a television for my father and I to watch as I waited. We put in
"Whit men can't jump" and just as Woody was going to take the court for
the first time the overweight nurse walked in. They brought me to the
prep room and there I lay just waiting to go under. As they started my
IV I began to get nervous. I thought of nothing except for the surgery
to come the doctor then added vallium to my iv and before I could count
to five I was out.
I woke up and felt very sluggish, I lay there for a while and then
proceeded to get dressed. The operation was over and I was on my way to
recovery. Two weeks passed and I was still attending every practice and
every game, this was very hard for me because I was unable to play. The
season went on and I watched for the sidelines, and on the final game of
the season I got my cast off. However, I was unable to play because I
still needed to go to therapy for my finger. My junior basketball
season was lost, and I could never get it back. The effects came a year
later, May of senior year.

GENDER IN SPORTS

In high schools and junior high schools across the country the importance of interscholastic sports competitions is strongly demonstrated to the students. They see the rewards and accolades given to the accomplished athletes, not only at these levels, but at the collegiate and professional levels as well. While most of these teams are formed and exist for both men and women, it is interesting how different each team tends to be treated. At High school football games, for example, the students and faculty show up in record numbers to prove their loyalty to the team and to the school itself. This football team is always comprised of men who use the sport to demonstrate their masculinity through the smashing and bashing of each other's skulls. Occasionally, one may find a select number of women who had to fight their way onto the team only to sit on the sidelines and watch. It is quite probable that such girls are only able to get onto the teams on the basis that most schools simply do not have a football team dedicated solely to the women football athletes. This lack of recognition for female athletes only becomes more frequent as one progresses through the levels of competition in virtually any sport. The games of women's teams, where they do exist, tend to draw only limited crowds at most levels of competition, scholastic or otherwise. In the realm of athletic activities, the American society has chosen not to offer the same opportunities to its women as it traditionally has to its men.
For centuries, it seems, it has generally been accepted that sports and other activities relying upon physical performance have been left for the men to participate in and enjoy. The women were generally left with the "traditional" duties of managing the household for their amusement. Just as many things have come to be drastically altered over the course of the last century or so, so has this old fashioned idea. Women have shown an interest of their own when it comes to sports. They have demonstrated that they, too, want to be able to prove their physical ability and talent through competition in a variety of athletic activities. While most of these activities are adapted versions of the same sports that were originally played by the men, women have shown that they can play them just as hard and as dirty against each other as the men have been doing for as long as one can recall. They have shown that they can be conditioned and up to the physical challenge that most sports demand, despite their being female and traditionally seen as "delicate creatures" by society. With few exceptions, women have proven that they really are no different than men when it comes to their abilities to participate in activities that used to be reserved for the masculine and the "strong" as opposed to the feminine and the "weak."
Only recently have activities, such as football, begun to present themselves as attractive sports for young girls wishing to participate in something athletic. Previously, the participation of the "weaker sex" in such a "harsh game" has been discouraged for a variety of reasons. Some site the "frailty" of women as the exclusion factor, relying on the assumption that all members of the female sex possess this inhibiting characteristic This idea can be proven wrong by any young girl who has had to grow up surrounded either by a group of rowdy, older brothers or has lived in a neighborhood consisting primarily of male companions. In this environment, especially, she has been forced to identify with those around her by taking part in the same activities and play as roughly as any one of the guys do with each other. She has demonstrated that she does not let her sex dictate who she is or who she wants to be. It is in part for this reason , perhaps, that girls have started to come out of their traditional roles as demure females and desire to step onto the playing fields with those with whom they may have grown up. Where teams do not exist specifically for women in some sports, some have taken it upon themselves to try and play with the guys. These girls tend to find opposition to this type of change within their schools and communities. Why should society tell her that she may not participate because it is not a sport designed for her? Since all women do not possess this assumed quality of innate frailty any more than all men possess the ability to fix cars and belch, they should not be treated as if they do.
Since professional sports teams were first developed years ago, women have not received their share of recognition for athletic ability by the establishment of leagues and teams within which they may play professionally. What makes a man playing a sport more interesting to watch than a woman playing the same game? Perhaps it is due to the fact that women's sports aren't as popular at the high school and collegiate levels as the men's sports tend to be. For this reason, the owners and developers of professional sports leagues may not feel that there is a need for these types of leagues. At the same time, a sort of circular idea emerges in that it could also be the case that these sports are not as popular at the high school level simply because teams do not exist at a professional level for female athletes to use as a goal or role model. For example, many spectators watch the football, baseball, and basketball games eagerly in high school because they know that the possibility exists that the strongest athletes may be talented enough to go on to compete at the higher levels. On the other hand, most women do not have this opportunity to go on to achieve such glorious recognition, so why should the spectators be as interested in their playing of a mere game in any sport?
Growing up in the American society, young girls and women are not given the same opportunities as their male counterparts in the ways of athletic competition and sports in general. From the time children begin to walk and run, our culture has led us to point the little boys in the direction of various athletic activities, while sending the little girls off to play "school" and "house." This has, over time, been enlarged to be the general idea where sports are concerned. At the scholastic levels of competition, high school and college alike, while teams have been created for women, the best resources and ideas are usually reserved for the players on the men's teams. They are the primary reason that the new stadium is erected or the new facilities have been designed to accommodate. These institutions only contribute to the sense of inequality among the sexes in their blatant separation and mismatched treatment of the sports teams of men an women. The crowds often flock to the men's games, while only the diehard fans come to watch the women's teams hard at work. All of this is only enhanced by the lack of any professional sports leagues in which women may participate and form careers. The idea that women cannot handle the world of sports is ridiculous because general assumptions of that magnitude cannot be accurately made by anyone. Women are as capable of playing athletics in the respected arena as any man is and it is time that action be taken to observe the truth of this statement.

Good Bad and Ugly Drivers

Drivers can be divided into three major categories-the good, the bad and the ugly. The purpose most drivers have is to get from point A to point B. Unfortunately, not all drivers get there the same way. How they get there depends on which category they fall into.

Good Drivers.

Good drivers will most always get to their destination with the least amount of trouble. They obey all the laws of driving. Such as using turn signals when required, checking their mirrors before switching lanes and following posted speed limits. Most importantly, good drivers respect the road and their fellow drivers.

Bad Drivers.


Bad drivers, on the other hand, seem to have some trouble getting where they are going. They don't obey the laws of driving. They refuse to use turn signals, or check their mirrors before switching lanes, often cutting other drivers off. Bad drivers tend to speed, weaving in and out of traffic without a care for the other drivers.



Ugly Drivers.


Ugly drivers are the worst drivers on the road. These are the drivers driving 50mph. in the fast lane. They also seem to always have there turn signal on and never turn. Ugly drivers refuse to turn right on red, even when there is no other traffic coming. They also have the bad habit of not seeing a traffic light turn green and they just sit there till someone honks their horn at them.
All drivers fall into one of these three categories. Most people would probably lie and say that they were in the good driver category. Some would have an honest opinion of his/her driving and categorize themselves properly. So I'll leave you with this question "Which type of driver are you"?

GREED IN SPORTS

Recently Michael Jordan wanted to de-certify the union of the National asketball Association, because he felt he could never make what he was "worth" under the current agreement. Michael Jordan had an estimated income of $33 million in 1994. Last year, Major League Baseball players went on strike because they felt the deal that the owners were proposing was unfair. The minimum salary for a major league player is $119,000. For the first time in ninety years, there was no post-season baseball, and no world series. Eric Turner was designated as the Cleveland Browns franchise player. He then proceeded to hold out during spring training, because he knew he could get more money then his current $2.15 million dollar contract. At one point in every athletes life, there is nothing they would want to do more than play their sport, not because it fattens their wallet, but because they have a true love for it. At what point does the athlete lose the love and gain the greed? The NBA has become the land of the guaranteed contract. These players want their millions handed to them on a silver platter, no matter what happens. If they get injured and can no longer play; pay up! If they averaged thirty points a game in college, but struggle to make the transition into the pros, and average only four points; pay up! If their egos swell so much that they are out of control in public and do something to disgrace the organization they play for; pay up, because the contract guarantees that they get their money. The NFL is a breeding ground for holdout players. I think that Holdout 101, taught by Professor X-you can get more money than what your contract says, holdout. Rule number two: if you are in the middle of a multi-year contract, then fuck that contract. Remember, if rule one applies, who gives a shit about a commitment. A new trend in baseball started about ten years ago. Players now sign one year contracts, and play for a different team each year. They don't ask themselves if that team will be a contender, or if that's the team they truly want to be a part of. They look at all the offers put in front of them, and see which one has the most dollars signs in it. It has gotten to the point where if someone asks "who did he used to play for?" they correct answer is six or seven different teams, depending on how long he's been playing.
Professional athletes always say that there is nothing they would want to do more than play their sport. One year later they contradict themselves by refusing to play due to a salary dispute. I think this greed begins as soon as the
athlete realizes that he can play at the professional level. When they realize they can make a ton of money by doing what they have always been good at, they start concentrating on the money to be made instead of concentrating on playing a game. The same person who played little league, then for his high school team, while never making a dollar for doing it, but still enjoying it all the same, suddenly develops a greed that is unimaginable. Not only do they want to get paid, but they want to get paid more than anyone has a right to for playing a game.
Sports will always be the owners business, the players job, and the fans game. I think the owners and players often forget this, but the fans are the ones who pay for it. The players see others players making millions, and wont play unless they also make a ridiculous amount. The owners are willing to do whatever it takes to get the players signed, so they pay them millions and raise the prices on the fans. It has gotten to the point where if you want to take your family to a sporting event, and possibly buy some food while your there, you better take out a small loan
from the bank before you go. Every year the prices for tickets, food, parking and souvenirs increase at the same rate as the greed of the players, and the owners willingness to pay.
The solution for all of this madness is a salary cap. Baseball and basketball due have salary caps now, but $35 million divided by twelve players is hardly a cap. In all sports they should have a maximum of $100,00 for rookies and $1 million for everyone else. Athletes do entertain millions of people, so I think they should be paid well. No athlete would ever agree to this because of the amount they all make today. An annual salary between $100,000 and $1 million is a hell of a lot of money. Even if the athlete decides to stay in college and get his degree, what else can
you do to make $100,000 your first year after graduation. And what can you do to make a million dollars? The truly great ones would still make money from endorsements, but they average fan would be able to go to games without going
broke.

History of Basketball

Who is known world-wide as the inventor of basketball? His name is Dr. James Naismith, he was born in 1861 in Almonte, Ontario. Most people wonder were a young man would think of a game like basketball. The concept of basketball was born from his school days in the area where he played a simple child's game known as duck-on-a-rock outside his one-room schoolhouse. The game involved attempting to knock a "duck" off the top of a large rock by tossing another rock at it.
Naismith went on to attend McGill University in Montreal, Quebec. In 1891 (after serving as McGill's Athletic Director) Naismith moved on to the YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts where the sport of basketball was born. In Springfield, Naismith was faced with several problems. One problem was making a sport that was suitable for play inside during the Massachusetts winter for the students at the School for Christian Workers. Naismith wanted to create a game of skill for the students instead of one that relied solely on strength. He needed a game that could be played indoors in a not too big, but not to small space. The first basketball game ever was played with a soccer ball and two peach baskets used as goals.

Naismith made a set of thirteen rules for his new "basketball" game:

1. The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.

2. The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands, but never with the fist.

3. A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man running at good speed.

4. The ball must be held in or between the hands. The arms or body must not be used for holding it.

5. No shouldering, holding, pushing, striking or tripping in any way of an opponent. The first infringement of this rule by any person shall count as a foul; the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game. No substitution shall be allowed.

6. A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violations of Rules 3 and 4 and such as described in Rule 5.

7. If either side make three consecutive fouls it shall count as a goal for the opponents (consecutive means without the opponents in the meantime making a foul).

8. A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the ground into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edge and the opponents move the basket, it shall count as a goal.

9. When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field and played by the first person touching it. In case of dispute the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The thrower-in is allowed five seconds. If he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on them.

10. The umpire shall be judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have the power to disqualify men according to Rule 5.

11. The referee shall be the judge of the ball and decide when it is in play in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made and keep account of the goals with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.

12.The time shall be two 15-minute halves with five minutes' rest between.

13.The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winners.

Besides the creation of basketball, Naismith graduated as a medical doctor, interested in sports physiology and what we would today call a sports scientist. Naismith watched his sport, that was introduced to many nations by the YMCA as early as 1893. In 1963, basketball was introduced to the Berlin Olympics. Today basketball has grown to become one of the world's most popular, and loved sports.

HOW I LEARNED TO SKI

I Love to snow ski, to me it is the epitome of excitement. I first tried to ski when I was only about four years old. My father, who is a tremendous skier, thought he should teach his first son just how to ski. Through practice and time I have made my father a happy teacher. I owe all my skiing knowledge to my father who has spent hour upon hour teaching me the so called "tricks of the trade". However, I have broken more than one bone learning what proves to be a very intense and serious sport and you should not take the excitment for granted.

I got started when my dad entered a powder eight contest, that's when you and a partner go down the hill and make the number eight in the snow with your skies, the team with the best looking eight's win. As usually my father won, and that day was when he first taught me how to ski. He showed me how to snow-plow down a hill, that is your first move you learn upon skiing, then he so ever willingly took me to the bunny hill and watched intently as if he remembers when he was that age and how strange and awkward he felt with those clumsy skis and big boots. That day was so hot but yet the snow remained and kept falling from the ski. Then my father showed me the basic techniques he acquired while learning how to ski, you see there is no standard way to ski everyone has to find their own style of skiing or snowboarding . As you can find out this sport is not something you do good at right away, it takes time and practice to become good.

When I got older we would go to bigger mountains in Colorado where he lives, we would spend all day skiing down difficult runs called double diamonds, that is the hardest run on the slopes. At first it was hard for me to keep up with my fathers tremendous speed and coordination he could really move down a mountain, for an amateur skier he was a real pro to me, I would try and copy his style for it was one that I learned very well. When I was able to find the style that best suited me I was amazed at how fast I had learned to ski, know when my father and I went down the mountain he was the one who had to keep up with me for I was what he envisioned his son to become a very experienced skier.

These days my father still teaches me new things that better my skills as a skier, you are never to old to learn something new. I have also been focusing most of my attention to mogul skiing, that is rows of bumps in the snow about a foot and half feet high, made by a machine so that a skier can learn the real meaning of how to ski. Moguls are by far the hardest thing to learn about skiing and it takes a long time to adjust yourself to the bumps that you have to ski over. I still go skiing with my father who resides in Steamboat Springs, Colorado home to one of the best resorts in the nation, which is properly named Steamboat. We do most of our skiing there know a days, so you can see if it wasn't for my father teaching me how to ski I would probably not be so fascinated by this incredible and breath -taking sport.

How to Fight in Hockey Successfully - Best Article

Sometimes hockey players lose their cool on the ice and get into a fight with an opponent. The fights look spontaneous and unplanned, but there are many techniques
and tricks that will help a player to be a better fighter. When a fight begins, the first thing to do is to drop your stick and gloves onto the ice. It is always better to punch with your bare fists so it hurts the opponent more. Also, it is easier to grab with your bare hands. Next, you must rip off the opponents helmet by grabbing the back of the helmet and pulling it toward yourself. Once you have the helmet off, the real rumble begins. From this point on in the scuffle, there are a few very successful techniques used by the best of the pros to win the fight.
One very good way to win is to, first, punch the
opponent in the stomach so he bends over toward you. Next,
grab the bottom of the back side of his jersey and forcefully
pull it over his head. By pulling the jersey over the
opposition's head, you make it so he can't see or move his
arms very well. With the jersey over his head, you can finish
the fight by throwing the punches that you throw the
hardest to your opponent's face and stomach.
Another good technique is to grab the opponent's collar
of his jersey right below his chin with one hand and pull him
foreword quickly. While you slam him forward, use your
other hand to punch him in the face. This technique hurts
the opponent the most because his momentum moving
toward you makes the blow twice as hard as an ordinary
punch. Continue to use this technique over and over until
the fight is done. The opponent usually will not know where
he is, so it will be a fairly easy fight.
Along with the previous techniques, there are also a few
tips that will help you out. First of all, avoid throwing your
opponent on to the ice. When you do this, the referees can
easily break up the brawl. Also, always keep your hands up to
be able to block blows to the face and head area. Lastly, try
not to pull the opponent's hair. This is considered to be very
cheap in a hockey fight.
On a final note, by following all these tips and
techniques, you will be a good fighter in hockey. When you
do get into a fight, use these techniques along with your own
style. It will be very pleasing to you and spectators if you
have your own signature fighting style. Although these tips
and tricks mentioned will help you to fight well, they do not
always assure a painless victory. An opponent will sometimes
sneak in a few lucky punches. Try to avoid getting hit in
tender areas such as the nose and eyes by moving your head
aside when an incoming fist comes. In closing, fight smart,
and you will fight successfully.

Jai Alai

Jai alai es un juego de pelota de origen vasco, quienes lo han llamado "pelota vasca". Jai alai significa "festival alegre" en la lengua vasca. El deporte fue importada en Cuba en el ano mil novecienta. Jai alai se juega por la mayor parte Espana, Cuba, Mexico, Italia, Francia, los Filipinos, y los Estados Unidos.
Se puede jugar jai alai uno-contra-uno o en equipo. Los jugadores alternadamente lanzan la pelota contra tres paredes y la atrapan con una cesta de forma cuchara que esta sujetada a la muneca del jugador. Jai alai se juega en una cancha, en un auditorio grande llamado un fronton.
La cancha es rectangular, con paredes de doce metros de altura. Aunque la cancha varia en tamano, los lados cortos, la pared frontis y la pared rebote, miden aproximados diez y siete metros de ancho. Las dos paredes estan conectados por una pared lateral que es de casi cincuenta metros de largo. El lado derecho del rectangulo tiene una malla por la cual los espectares miran el juego.
La pelota es aproximado tres-cuartos de tamano de una pelota de beisbol, pero es mas dura de la. La pelota pueda alcanzar velocidades de hasta doscientos cuarenta y uno kilometros, o ciento cincuenta millas, por hora. Jai alai es uno de los juegos mas rapidos y requiere gran agilidad y coordinacion. Los jugadores profesionales usan cascos, pantalones blancos, correas de colores, camisas con numeros, y zapatos tenis blancos. Las cestas varian de acuerdo a las especifaciones de cada jugador, y miden aproximadamente sesenta centimetros.
El juego empieza cuando un jugador lanza la pelota contra la pared frontis. Despues de la sirva, el otro jugador tiene que atrapar y volverla a lanzar contra la pared frontis en un solo movimiento. Despues la pelota puede rebota a la pared lateral o de atras. El objeto es que amasar un numero de puntos y que el otro equipo no acieta la pelota.
Jai alai se introducio en Latino America durante el ultimo decada del siglo diecinueve, y conveniba a un pasatiempo nacional en muchos paises de Latino America, especialmente en Cuba y Mexico, y en los paises de Sudamerica.

Jesse Owens

"I always loved running...it was something you could do by yourself, andunder your own power. You could go in any direction, fast or slow as you wanted, fighting the wind if you felt like it, seeking out new sights just on the strength of your feet and the courage of your lungs."
-Jesse Owens

Jesse Owens, a black man who contributation to the world will be know to everyone. A man who has broken all the boundaries. A man who has won many names and
awards. A man of many talents. A man with a title "fastest man ever". A MAN Jesse Owens, one of the eight children in his family, one of the best track and field athletes of all time. He was born 1913, on a farm in the city of Danville Alabama, under his real name, James Cleveland Owens. He went to Fairmount Junior High School. Then he went on to high school where he was a track athlete and there his high points were the running broad jump (long jump), the one-hundred meter dash and the two-hundred meter dash. After graduating from high school he attended Ohio State University (OSU).
Charles Riley taught him after he first saw him in junior high. He was a excellent track runner in high school, one of the best in the world. Like mentioned above, he was excellent in the broad jump, the one-hundred meter dash, and the two-hundred meter dash.

He loved running when he was young, he said "...it would always get me where I was
going..." He would always run. He then went on to attend Ohio State University and there he set the new worlds record for the broad jump at the length of 26 feet and one forth inch. Going on to the next year he set another worlds record for the one-hundred meter dash at the time of 10.2 seconds. He then was so good he went on to the 1936 Olympics as a member of the U S Olympic team, the games were held in Berlin, Germany where blacks were not accepted as well as whites and because of that Reichfuekrer Adolf Hitler did not acknowledge the achievements that he did perform, despite his athletic ability. He won four Olympic gold medals in the 200 and 100 meter dash, the broad jump, and also the 400 meter relay with the other four people that ran with him. He was one of the four Americans who have one three or more gold medals in one of the games. The Chicago Defender wrote an article which came from Berlin which reads: "Jesse Owens is the god of the sports fans here. He has effectively demonstrated his superiority in winning the finals in the 100 meter event which he equaled the worlds record and by blasting the Olympic mark of Eddie Tollan, another race star, set back in 1932 over the 200-meter route. He was the first Negro to hold such position on any Olympic team at this time.

Jesse Owens was proud of his race and wasn't afraid to show it to anyone. He ran
for his race in all the Olympic games he attended. He gave hope to all the blacks then he did what he did and they had more reason to be treated like the whites in the world. Alot of African Americans look up to him as a black man for all he did for the black race. He showed the world that the blacks are the same as everyone else and that we all have the same blood.

Jesse Owens went on after his career and attended many foundations and programs to show that he cares for who he is. He eventually died at the age of 77 in 1980 and he finished off with many awards from his track seasons. He will be looked up to and respected by all and will never be forgotten.

I think Jesse Owens is a great role model for all ages and he should be looked up to. He stood up for what he believed and had respect for who he was. I look up to him because I think that the racism in the world has been reduced because of people like him.

I think he has made a great contribution to everyone. "When I came back, after all those stories about Hitler and his snub, I came back to my native country, and I could not ride in the front of the bus. I had to go to the back door. I couldn't live where I wanted. Now what's the difference?"

Jim Abbott

It is a clear summer night at Fenway Park in Boston. The Boston Red Sox and the California Angels are in a hot pennant race. The Boston Red Sox are the best hitting team in the American League. The Angels need a win and are counting on their rookie pitcher. The old green stadium is overflowing with die-hard Red Sox fans as the rookie takes the mound. He has to concentrate on tonight's game and ignore the crowd. The game advanced with no trouble for the rookie.
In the end, he gave up four harmless hits and, most importantly, no runs. When he got the final man out, giving his team a 4-0 victory, he starts to walk off the mound. All over Fenway Park, not only Angel fans, but Red Sox fans stood and applauded, cheering the rookie off the field. Everyone knew that they had seen someone very special. This person was Jim Abbott.
Jim Abbott has led an eventfully life. He brought his college team to the championship in 1985, brought Team USA to gold in 1988, and threw a no hitter against the Cleveland Indians in 1993. These achievements are not what make him so special; what makes Jim Abbott even more remarkable is that he only has one hand.
As a child Jim's parents always told him that he could do anything he wanted to do. They knew that their son loved sports. They hoped that Jim would play soccer, which didn't require the use of hands, but right from the very beginning, Jim loved baseball. So, Jim's parents bought him a baseball glove. However, Jim was not just involved in baseball. He was the top scorer in his school's intramural basketball league, and played two years of varsity football. Jim's various athletic exploits resulted in press attention.
When Jim got to college, he picked up right where he had left off in high school. His two main goals were to get an education and to become the best possible pitcher he could be. At this point, his fastball was close to ninety miles per hour. Jim to worked hard on a straight change-up and a better curveball.
In the fall of 1987, Jim Abbott was given the United States Baseball Federation's coveted Golden Spikes Award. This award is given yearly to the best amateur baseball player in the country. That wasn't his only award. He also received the Academy Award for Sports Award for Courage in 1987 and was chosen as the March of Dimes Amateur Athlete of the Year for 1988. He later won the Tanqueray Achievement Award for amateur athletes.
On baseball's draft day, in 1988, Jim was the eighth pick in the first round. He was selected by the California Angels. He was the fifth pitcher to be chosen in the draft, and the second left-hander. The Angels were thrilled to get him.
In spite of Jim's amazing achievements on the baseball field, he has maintained a genuine level of kindness. In recent years, far too many of America's heroes have disappointed their fans. Being a hero is a responsibility that Jim handles this beautifully, offering help and encouragement to young and handicapped athletes throughout the country. He is a true American hero, a one-of-a-kind success story. His ambition, determination, and accomplishments are true motivational achievements.

Martial Arts

To follow is my report on martial arts in Asia. This a very interesting subject, and
a very good report. It will describe martial arts and some types of martial arts. It will also say where they originated from.

The term "martial arts" is a general term used to describe general types of
fighting. Most martial arts practised today came from China, Japan, and Korea.
There are hundreds of types of martial arts, each divided into specific styles or systems. Technically, martial arts fall into two categories: percussive, and non-percussive.
In percussive martial arts such as Karate, Tae Kwon Do, and Kung-Fu, people
strike with their hands, feed, elbows, and head. This type of martial arts is very aggressive.
On the other hand, in non-percussive martial arts, such as Judo, involve throwing, locking, and neutralising the opponent. They are far less aggressive.
Kung-Fu is an interesting type of martial art, the origins of which are unknown. Some historians believe it started as early as 1500 BC There are two major types of Japanese martial arts. They are Bujitsu, and Budo.
The bujitsu martial art is a relatively new one. It emphasises combat and willingness to face death as a matter of honour.
Budo, which was started during the late 1800's, focuses on developing moral and aesthetic developments. Karate-do and Judo are forms of Budo.People who learn budo learn it to use it only as a last resort.Another martial art that developed in Japan is ninjitsu, which means "the art of stealing in!" People who practice ninjitsu are called ninjas. Ninjitsu was developed in the late 1200's. At that time, ninjas were masters of all armed and unarmed combat.

Although the emperors banned ninjitsu in the 1600's, it was still practised
secretly, to keep the value it possesses. Ninjitsu gained world attention in the 1980's.
This was a report about martial arts in Asia. It listed them, and where and when they originated. I hope you enjoyed reading this report.

Article On Michael Jordan

The early years.
Michael Jordan was one of five children born to James and Delores Jordan. He was born February 17, 1963 in Brooklyn. The Jordans' felt that the streets of Brooklyn were unsafe to raise a young family of five children. Instead of trying to endure the streets of Brooklyn, the Jordan family moved to Wilmington, North Carolina. James got a job in Wilmington as a mechanic and Delores got a job as a teller at United
Carolina Bank. The Jordan's always stressed the value of manners to their
children. The above examples typified Michael Jordan's early years.
Michael's first love.
Michael always had an eye for baseball. He played as an outfielder and
as a pitcher. When he was twelve, he was the top player in his league.
Michael had his picture placed in the Morning Star, which is Wilmington's
newspaper. By the age of fifteen, he wasn't the star in baseball he once
was. He was still very good, but he had lost some of his focus. Later, in his
high school career, he dropped baseball to pursue another interest.
Basketball and Michael.
When Michael was younger he adopted the game of basketball. Mike
used to work with his father in the garage. While working with his father,
Michael picked up the habit of sticking his tongue out in an intense
situation. When Michael reached the ninth grade, he tried out for
basketball. Coach Lynch, Michael's coach, cut Michael which in turn may
have made the best player alive today. Michael then took practicing
basketball to another level. He played his brother Larry whenever he
could. Michael never expected what would come in the near future.

The College Years.
Michael Jordan went to the University of North Carolina as a basketball
recruit. Even though Jordan at 6'5" was a man with potential, he still
studied very hard in an attempt to get a good education, while competing
in sports. Mike wasn't expected to be a star of the Tar Heels, since they
had players such as James Worthy, Sam Perkins, and Al Wood. By the end
of the 1981-82 season, Jordan, as a freshman, was an everyday starter.
Carolina reached the Final Four with the help of Jordan, who had sixteen
points and led the team with nine rebounds. In the final twenty seconds,
Michael made a title winning shot from the left baseline. In Michael's
sophomore and junior seasons, he was voted College Basketball's Player of
the Year. Through Michael's three years at Carolina, he average 17.7
points per game, while maintaining a "B" average.
The Rookie Season.
After a great college career, Michael was drafted by the Chicago Bulls as
the third pick of the 1984-85 season. Michael quickly signed a $6.15
million contract. Michael made a huge impact in the National Basketball
Association. He made such an impact that he was selected to be an
alternate on the Eastern Division All-Star squad. During his rookie season
with the Bulls, companies started picturing Jordan on posters and on
television. Jordan led the Bulls to a 38 win and 44 loss season. Jordan
averaged 28.2 points per game, while setting a team record with 2,313
points. He won the Schick Pivotal Player of the Year Award, Seagram's
NBA Pivotal Player of the Year Award, and the honor of Rookie of the year.



Michael and Endorsements.
With Michael's growing success in the NBA, more and more companies
wanted to use the "Air Jordan" name. One of the first companies to use his
name was Nike. Nike paid Michael $2.5 million, so they could begin a line
of shoes known as "Air Jordan's." Nike sold 2.3 million pairs for $65. Other
companies would attempt to endorse Jordan. These companies include
Coca-Cola, Wilson basketballs, McDonald's, Excelcior Internantion (Time
Jordan watches), Wheaties and Gatorade to name a few.
Most Valuable Player.
During the 1987-88 season, Jordan raised his game to another level.
The Bulls status was also raised to another level with the additions of
Scottie Pippen and Horace Grant. Michael was having another great season
and this was evidenced when he started on the Eastern Division All-Star
squad. During the All-Star games Jordan won the slam-dunk contest. He
then finished the season, leading the Bulls in scoring for 81 games out of
the 82 game season. Michael averaged 35 points per game. For his efforts,
Jordan was selected as the Most Valuable Player and as Defensive Player of
the Year.










The First Championship.
During the 1990-91 season, Chicago went on a rampage. The Bulls had
61 wins and 21 losses, which was the best record in franchise history.
Michael averaged 31.5 points which won him his fifth scoring title. The
Bulls reached the NBA finals for the first time in Jordan's career. The Bulls
faced the Los Angeles Lakers which was called a dream matchup between
Michael and Magic Johnson. Chicago won the series rather easily. Jordan
was voted Most Valuable Player of the finals.
Jordan Quits Basketball.
Michael Jordan announced after winning his third consecutive NBA
championship, that he was stepping down from the game he loved. He said
that he was tired of the pressures. Some people believe that Jordan's
gambling debts caused Jordan to quit. Others believe that the slaying of
his father which happened on August 15, 1993 caused Jordan to quit.
There is one final theory. The theory is that Michael wanted to pursue
one of his childhood dreams, professional baseball.
Michael and Baseball.
Michael Jordan announced that he would pursue his dream of playing
baseball. Jordan joined the Chicago White Sox organization. The White
Sox gave Jordan a tryout and then decided that he would be best playing
with the Birmingham Barons. When Mike hit his first home run on July 30,
he pointed to the sky honoring his father. However Jordan struggled in
baseball, with a horrible average. Jordan would soon be back to the game
he loved.









He's Back.
After spending 17 months away from the game he loved, Michael Jordan
came back on March 18, 1995. Although he was back, number 23 was not
back. Jordan came back as number 45. In his first few weeks back, Jordan's
shot was off, although his superb leadership was back. In one game
Michael showed flashes of his old self. Michael scored 55 points in a game
at Madison Square Garden in New York. A few weeks later, Michael, a very
superstitious man, switched his number from 45 to 23. Although the Bulls
were defeated by the Orlando Magic in the playoffs, the Bulls went on their
best winning streak of the season.
Accomplishments.
Michael Jordan has been called the best basketball player ever by Magic
Johnson. Jordan has led the NBA in scoring an amazing seven times.
Jordan is only the second player to score 3000 points in one season, with
the other being Wilt Chamberlain. Mike was voted Defensive Player of the
Year in 1988. Jordan has been Most Valuable Player of the NBA finals
three times. He was Sports Illustrated Sportsman of the Year in 1991.
Jordan has also received three MVP awards between 1988 and 1992.

Minor League Baseball: Boom or Bust to Communities?

Despite the occasional disappointment, minor league baseball provides many
communities with economic development and an improved quality of life. Communities as
small as Elizabethtown, Tennessee or as large as Phoenix, Arizona have shared the
common bond of being the homes of major league farm teams. This is referred to as the National Association of Professional Baseball, or more commonly known as the "minor leagues." As the popularity of major league baseball seems to be decreasing due to the recent player strike, free agency, and anti-trust labor laws, minor league baseball has generated excitement that can only be associated with baseball in the good old days. This excitement is a purity of spirit which the majors no longer possess. "It is baseball in its simplest form-- just ball, bats, gloves, and lifelong dreams. The parks are generally small, the players, hardworking young men whom local fans are likely to run into the next day at the mall or maybe the corner bar. A family of four can see a game, eat dinner--maybe even pick up a souvenir or two--without having to consider a second mortgage. No lockouts, no holdouts, no five-dollar beers, and the umpire is the only one who can call a strike. "Just the national pastime, played the game it is," says one editor of The Minor League Baseball Book.
There are currently 156 teams that are part of the National Association of
Professional Baseball. This number will grow in the next few years with the addition of two expansion teams at the major league level. There have also been a number of
independent leagues formed which are said to be the "future of minor league baseball."
The success of these teams have shown how the value of these franchises have grown over the past ten years. In the past, class AAA teams would sell for three hundred thousand dollars while a smaller class A team went for fifty thousand. Today the class AAA teams are being sold for as high as five million dollars while class A teams are going for around one million. The best example of the fact that franchises have grown in value over the years is the Reading Phillies. Joe Buzas, a minor league baseball entrepreneur, has owned and operated twelve minor league teams in seventeen cities since 1956. In 1976, Buzas bought the Reading Phillies franchise for $1. Ten years later in 1986 he sold it for $1,000,000.
The addition of minor league baseball to communities can provide many benefits. The greatest benefit is the overall economic lift that minor league baseball brings to a community. Minor league baseball provides additional jobs. Initially, local individuals build the stadium. This project takes from six months to a year. An average of 15 full-time and 125 part-time individuals ranging in age from high school students to older,retirees are employed at the stadium.
The stadium will be beneficial if it's useful for the baseball fan as well as any resident. For approximately seventy nights a year, a stadium will provide an opportunity for the baseball fan to view professional baseball up close, to identify future stars and to
follow their careers, and to get a glimpse of current major league players who
occasionally are assigned to a minor league team for rehabilitation purposes or who are in
the last stages of their career. The stadium, however, should be more than that. It should
be a community facility that provides many types of recreational resources. A new
stadium is capital improvement and should have a life of more than two decades. If the
stadium and team are to be evaluated as a true community resource, they must serve the
entire community. If a stadium is utilized during the winter months, when baseball is not
played, not only will a community's quality of life be enhanced, but the economic
development function of the stadium will be maximized as well.

The addition of minor league baseball to an area can be an important tool in
revitalizing an area. The best example that comes to mind is the Harrisburg Senators
located in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. In 1980, after three decades of decline, Harrisburg
was one of the most distressed cities in the nation. It had lost its credit rating and faced
bankruptcy. By 1988, under the leadership of Mayor Stephen Reed, Harrisburg had
become the leading city in economic growth among those with a population 50,000-
75,000. The turn around of the city gained recognition when Harrisburg was named the
second best investment city in eastern United States. Harrisburg officials have identified
several benefits that the city has derived from the presence of the Harrisburg Senators.
The most important benefit has been the redevelopment of City Island. City Island was
Reed's announced site for a future stadium. The mayor anticipated using the stadium as
the centerpiece for the redevelopment of City Island. The mayor viewed the stadium as
the anchor for an economic development project that would be highly visible and would
help attract large crowds of people to the island. This would lead in making other events
on the island more feasible. Reeds dream became a reality in1986, when they began
construction of Riverside Stadium on City Island. In March 1987, the Pittsburgh Pirates
class AA team began play in Harrisburg. Harrisburg's inaugural season was nothing short
of spectacular as the Senators won the Eastern League championship and attracted
223,000 fans their first year. Their success continued throughout the 80's and into the 90's
with attendance of 216,940 in 1988; 200,196 in 1989; 223,533 in 1990; and 233,423 in
1991. Their attendance in 1988 and 1990 was the highest in the Eastern League. The
success of the Senator's made the revitalization of City Island possible. The city has
constructed another sports field, where a minor league football team and community
soccer team play. Concerts also are held on this second field. Riverside Village provides
a number of food stands that attract downtown workers and residents and city visitors to
the island. A marina and a riverboat, which presents an hour-long

cruise, have been established off the island. City officials estimate more than 600,000
people visit the island annually. The most activity, however, takes place from April to
December. The Harrisburg Senators remain the principal attraction, but other features and
activities on the island are becoming established in their own right.
Minor league baseball also brings tourists and visitors to the community.
In addition to the game itself, many travelers will visit local attractions as well as stay in
nearby hotels. The visiting teams brings a strong following with them to many road
games. These are tourists that would not be visiting the area if minor league baseball did
not exist. These baseball fans would not be supporting local restaurants, stores, gas
stations, if minor league baseball did not exist.
Although minor league baseball has been a dream come true for cities like
Harrisburg, it has been a nightmare for other communities. In Hudson Valley, New York,
the community found its case of baseball fever has turned into a "financial jam and it may
not find the way out for a long time." Hudson Valley was a community that was still
suffering from a 8,000 job losses from a recent IBM downsizing effort. The prospect of
luring a minor league baseball team sounded like a good way to boost the local economy.
A nonprofit organization was formed, and a plan was immediately developed to build the
stadium. The cost for the stadium would be 3.75 million paid by the county, and an
additional 1.75 million would be financed by the private sector. "It was supposed to be
the world's greatest public-private partnership, now, everybody wants the county to pull
their chestnuts out of the fire," Dutchess County legislator Woody Klose said. Although
the team has been a rousing success and routinely sells out the 4,000 seat stadium, the
group constantly finds themselves in financial debt. Many people in the area blame it on
time. The time factor was the biggest limitation. The big push to get the the stadium built
as quickly as possible forced an overrun of nearly two million dollars. "In the time most
people built a house, we built a stadium," said David Avenius, an assistant to the Dutchess
County Executive. Klose said that it is extremely important to get the stadium financing
up front. He still has a recommendation for other communities that want to lure a minor
league baseball team. "Go into therapy," Klose said. "Deep, deep therapy"(Slavin B1).
Some communities that have had financial success, have suffered the loss
of their team because of franchises relocating. Corporations abandon communities where
they have been located for many years, leaving those communities and their residents with
a weakened economy and social structure and without any compensation or resources to
assist recovery. Unfortunately, relocation has played a part in minor league communities
leaving cities with an abandoned stadium. Local officials often cannot respond positively
to an team owner's demands because of the limited resources available in smaller
communities. This demonstrates the importance of stadiums in city-team negotiations,
and they show how the business interests of team owners and local officials often conflict.
Location decisions of owners tend to be business decisions that are designed to
maximize their financial interests. Joe Buzas, owner of the former Fresno Suns, chose not
to remain in Fresno because of competition from the university for the fans and advertising
dollars. The Fresno Suns had been playing in a run down stadium that received minimum
financial support form the city. Fresno State University agreed to let the Fresno Suns play
at their modern facility. However, the university wanted half of the ticket revenue and all
of the concession revenue the Suns would receive. In 1988, after receiving permission
from the California League, Buzas moved the franchise to Salinas, California. To this day
there is no professional baseball being played in Fresno, California(Johnson 133).
Franchises Relocating have also been based on a community not meeting the needs
or the demands of the owner. Charlotte Knights owner George Shinn wanted to build a
stadium that would be capable of hosting more than a minor league baseball team. To
make his stadium plans work, Shinn had to avoid use restrictions of this stadium and
consequently needed more land than he could obtain in Charlotte. Shinn and Charlotte
officials negotiations eventually failed because both parties had conflicting side issues and
agendas. City staff members struggled to control the stadium issue. They were primarily
concerned about protecting the city's investment in the new coliseum. Shinn, looking
beyond Class AA baseball, dreamed of a stadium that could potentially accommodate
major league baseball, professional football, and other forms of entertainment. Later, he
viewed the project as a revenue-generating real estate deal. He was not interested in a
stripped-down stadium(Johnson 121).
An important benefit that has been seen first hand by individuals is the
quality of life minor league baseball adds for the community. It provides affordable family
entertainment by charging fans low ticket costs. In Ottawa, Canada, the ticket prices
range from just $4.20 to $8.40 -- the least expensive seats cost less than one-fifth of the
equivalent for Ottawa Senators hockey games. "This is affordable family entertainment.
You can't make the excuse you can't afford to come and bring the kids too," says Ottawa
Lynx owner Howard Darwin(Allen 48). In Frederick, Maryland, and in Hagerstown,
Maryland, any child who comes to the ball game in any sports uniform gets in
free(Morgenson 40). In Scranton Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, home of the Class AAA
Red Barrons, ticket costs are $3.50 for bleachers, $4.50 for upper grandstand and $6.50
for lower box seats. While in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, home of the Major League
Phillies, tickets range from $5 for bleacher seats at to $16 for level seats behind the box
seats. The contrast in ticket prices between the minor leagues and the major leagues have
been seen all over the United States and Canada.
Minor league baseball has also done a tremendous job of providing good quality
baseball as well as providing entertainment at the game. This has been done with a wide
range of promotions. In some stadiums around the United States and Canada, promotions
have been the major reasons for fans attending the game. In Prince William, Virginia,
home of the Class A Cannons, general manager Kenneth Shepard has come up with a valet
car wash and a preferred parking pass for season ticketholders. For $2, you can have your
car washed while you're watching the game; and for $75 a year, fans can have their own
assigned parking spot(Morgenson 9). Robert Rich, Jr., president of Rich Products Corp.
in Buffalo, the nation's largest family owned frozen food manufacturer, has owned the
Buffalo Bisons since 1983 and was among the first to make his games "events." He puts
on a weekly fireworks display, sponsors at least three major concerts a season -- last year
the Beach Boys, Aretha Franklin, and Huey Lewis and the News came to town -- and
dreams up contests where fans participate on the ball field. Rich explains, "Thursdays are
Pizza Hut Pop-up Night. Before the game, contestants come out onto the field and try to
catch three pop-up fly balls. If someone catches all three, everybody in the stadium gets a
free pizza from Pizza Hut"(Morgenson 9). In Wilmington, Delaware, promotions include
the Dizzy Bat Race, Dirtiest Car of the Game, Frisbee Toss, and minor league baseball's
version of "Let's Make a Deal." There is no limit to the creativity that they have come up
for promotions at minor league baseball games
Another aspect that has played a part in adding to the quality of life has been the
attitude of the fans. Unlike the fans at the major league games who seem to keep to
themselves and have intolerable attitudes, fans are unusually friendly at minor league
games. Leanne Pagliai is Vice-president of the High Desert Mavericks, a Class A San
Diego Padres farm team in Adelanto, California. Pagliai has a theory: "Our commuter
society is so splintered today, citizen's can't bond as much as a community anymore;
minor league baseball is a chance to get together with your neighbors." Darwin explains,
"Away from the world of world-class, people behave normally. They are decent and
friendly. They have time to chat. The fans are not impatient with the ball players. The
ball players, paid salaries that are smaller than those of many fans, are approachable and
nice. They give balls to kids." Darwin also credits his success in Ottawa because he was
able to spot a desire by the fans to be part of something small(Gordon 9).
In Durham, North Carolina, minor league baseball has had an impact on the
community both positively and negatively. They were an established franchise that began
to head in the wrong way. Durham, like many communities that have face "hard times,"
learned from their mistakes and bounced back to become the most nationally known minor
league team. Durham is located in North Carolina and is part of the "research triangle"
along with Raleigh and Chapel Hill. In the 1980's, Durham's economic image began to
struggle. In the mid 1980's, the North Carolina Symphony moved its home from Durham
to Raleigh. This was believed to be caused by Durham's lack of respect in the Carolina
region and harmful intercity competition. Another problem was the prohibition by the
state legislature against Durham annexing Research Triangle Park. This was also due to
the declining city image.
Durham in the 20th century had a rich tradition of minor league baseball. Durham
housed the headquarters of the National Association of Professional Baseball Leagues
from 1933 to 1947. The Bulls were one of the most successful teams in the minor leagues
in the 40's, 50's, and most of the 60's. However, towards the end of the 60's, Durham
began to experience some "hard times." This was due to poor management and the
decadence of Durham Athletic Park (DAP). In 1971, Durham began its final season as the
home of the Durham Bulls.
In 1980, Miles Wolff brought minor league baseball back to Durham. Wolff spent
$2500 for the rights to the team and $25000 to restore Durham Athletic Park. In 1988,
the Durham Bulls and minor league baseball got national attention with the success of the
movie "Bull Durham." A year before "Bull Durham", Raleigh officials tried to lure the
Bulls from Durham in hopes that a higher-level team would be brought to the
Raleigh-Durham area. This attempt failed and baseball in Durham remains to this day.
The Bulls were one thing that intercity rivals Raleigh and Chapel Hill did not have. This
was recognized as substantial to the city of Durham's image. Durham to this day is the
most recognized minor league baseball team. It has led the Carolina League attendance
for the past five years and has built a new stadium where the Bulls began playing last year.
Their old stadium remains a historical minor league baseball landmark where high school
and local college baseball games are played. The Bulls are also the leading memorabilia
seller in the entire minor leagues.
Not every community will achieve the success of Durham, North Carolina, because
there is no 100% guarantee in minor league baseball. However, the majority of towns and
cities throughout the United States and Canada hosting minor league baseball teams have
experienced many benefits. Economic growth and development, community identity and
pride , affordable family entertainment, and an improved the quality of life indicate that
minor league baseball is here to stay.

Mountain Bikes

It has been a decade in the making, but the mountain bike has become a passion for many people.
Along with this passion it has also become the most environmental way to get from point A to B. It has gone through a very intense evolution process over the past decade. It all started with some guys from California who took their bikes out for a ride on their day off,they modified theirbikes and turned a hobby of theirs into a worldwide phenomenon. The mountain bike's rapid increase in popularity was influenced by social and economic situations, and by technological improvements that had the needs of bike riders in mind. The introduction of the mountain bike at a bike
convention in Long Beach, California, early in the 1980's coincided with the need for a bike that combined
technical superiority, ease of care, and multipurpose use.
Technological advances came extremely fast after it's introduction into the world. The advances
have made riding mountain bikes easier, which makes it possible for the rider to explore new terrain. I hope
that this report will be able to provide some information on the subject of mountain bikes and the advances
in technology that the bike has gone through, and what might be in the future of the mountain bike.
The road bike has taken more than a hundred years to evolve into the frame that it is being used on
todays bicycle. Because of the increasingly popularity of the mountain bike the demand for advances to be
made have come very rapidly.
The evolution of the mountain bike has been a stormy one over the past decade. Within one
decade the design has changed radically; this is due to three reasons. First , because geometry and design
were copied from the first "Stone-Age bikes"; second, because off-road riding created different problems ;
and third, because innovative frame design mirrored the "spirit of the times": young, new, dynamic, and
strong. The off-road bike required extra stability.
Frame
It is important to know the basic frame geometry and how to measure it. The combination of tube
length and angle determines not only the maneuverability of the bike, but also determines the seating
position and the transfer of power. Variances of 1° of the headset angle, or a 1' (2cm) difference in the
distance between the rear-wheel axle and the center of the bottom bracket, can have very serious
consequences.
Frame Geometry
The basic elements of frame geometry are: A- Height of the seat tube; B- Length of the top tube;
C- Seat-tube angle; D- Headset-tube angle; E- Trail, F- Distance between the rear-wheel axle and the bottom
bracket; G- Distance between the front-wheel axle and the bottom bracket; H- Wheelbase; I- Height of the
bottom bracket; J- Stem angle; K- Length of the headset tube.
A. Height of the Seat Tube
This is determined by the length of the biker's inseam. This measurement is only of little
importance, because of the different frame designs and the different methods of construction used by
different manufacturers.
B. Length of the Top Tube
This length should correspond to the rider's trunk (length from the seat to the shoulders). With
mountain bikes this measurement should be increased by a few inches. This increases the distance between
the two axles, which increases the riding comfort and makes for a straight and stable ride. Some times the
top tube is slightly slanted, this is because some bike frames are designed so high off the ground, the slanted
top tube makes for an easier dismount.
C. Seat-Tube Angle
This angle basically determines how the bike will handle. Today the standard for a seat-tube is to
be set at a 72° to 73° angle. At 69° to 71°, it is a more comfortable ride, but a sharper angle increases the
bike's agility and ability to climb.
D. Headset-Tube Angle
Along with the fork and trail, the headset-tube angle determines the steering characteristics of the
bike. A steep angle together with a curved fork reacts more sensitively when steering; a flatter angle reacts
less sensitively. In the past the angle was set at 68°, but today the standard angle of the headset-tube is 71°.


E. Trail
The trail is the distance between two points marked from the center of the headset to the floor and
by the extension of a line from the center of the front axle to the floor. This distance depends on the
curvature of the fork and the angle of the headset tube. A longer trail makes for easy steering; a short trail
causes the bike to react quickly to every movement of the handlebars.
F. Distance Between the Rear-Wheel Axle and the Bottom Bracket
The longer this distance is, the more comfortable the ride. A shorter distance creates a "lively
action" and a good climbing ability. The average span from the bottom bracket to the rear wheel for a
mountain bike is 17" (43 cm).
G. Distance Between the Front-Wheel Axle and the Bottom Bracket
This distance determines the amount of toe clearance. Toe clearance means that the front tire and
the tips of the rider's shoes never come into contact as the rider pedals and turns at the same time. To do
this, measure the distance between the center of the axle at the front-wheel hub and the center of the axle of
the bottom bracket.
H. Wheelbase
This is the distance between the centers of both the front-wheel and rear-wheel axles. A long
wheelbase makes for ease of handling and good straight-ahead riding. A short wheelbase makes for
sensitive handling.
I. Height of the Bottom Bracket
This is the distance between the floor and the center of the axle of the bottom bracket. A lower
bottom bracket makes the bike more maneuverable; an elevated bottom bracket means more stability and
better straight-ahead riding. A very high bottom bracket makes it easier to clear obstacles.
J. Stem Angle
This angle is determined by the inclination of the headset tube. A wider angle gives an easy, more
comfortable ride. A narrower angle gives a "sportier" feel. For the comfortable ride the angle should be set
from 15° to 25°, for a racer the angle should be between 0° and 10°.

K. Length of the Stem
A longer headset (stem) will distribute the weight of the rider more evenly between the front and
rear wheels. Longer headset tubes are more frequently found on racing bikes. A long headset tube is about
51/8" to 6" (13 to 15 cm); a short tube measures between 4" to 43/4" (10 to 12 cm).
All measurements taken together, and their relationship to each other, define a bike's
characteristics. The ability to interpret a frame's dimensions allows someone to predict a bike's
maneuverability, and allows the biker to determine if a bike will perform to his expectations.










Tube Materials
More than 90% of all the mountain bikes used today are made from steel tubes. The steel tubes are
all made from high quality steel alloys. Other substances have been added make sure the frame is
problem-free as well as having a high degree of stability and flexibility. Although the steel tubes are of
exceptional quality, they have one major disadvantage, their weight. Since weight is one of the basic
problems of a mountain bike, there has been a search for a material that was light in weight as well as
strong.
Aluminum has rapidly become the tube material of choice in the past few years. A decade ago
aluminum was still an "exotic" metal, a term used to describe titanium today. The use of carbon fibre and
kevlar are also being used more for the construction of bike frames. In recent years these materials have
been used in more industries other than the aircraft industry, making them more affordable. Today builders
use these materials because of their qualities: light weight, and good elasticity, both combined with good
strength. Because the tube materials play such an important role in the way a bike reacts and feels it is
important for a buyer to know what the bike frame is made from. It is also important to know the
advantages and disadvantages of each of the materials.
Steel
Since the mountain bike was invented, the frame manufacturers have used chrome-molybdenum-
steel in various thickness' to build high quality bikes. The two most used steel alloys are 25-CrMo4 and
34-CrMo4. For 25-CrMo4, the 25 means that it contains 25% carbon (carbon makes steel tension-resistant,
and serves as a protection against deformation); CrMo4 indicates how much of the substances that improve
the quality of the steel (chrome and molydenum) have been added. Manganese-molydenum is another
alloy that may also be added. All of these alloys reach very good anti-breakage strength. High-quality steel
tubes have seamless joints, and their ends have been reinforced or "butted". The strength of the walls of
high-quality CrMo tubes have been tripled. Butted tubes are strongest at the point where two tubes are
joined, and are weakest in the middle of the tube.
The advantages of steel tubes are that it is a relatively inexpensive metal. The soldering the tubes
produces strong, stable connections. Steel also tolerates a great deal of stress before it starts to break down.
There are two disadvantages of using a steel frame: it's weight and it's susceptibility to corrosion.
The fight against rust is endless; also, a search for a material that is light is still an ongoing process.
Despite these shortcomings steel remains the most reliable material for the frame industry.
Aluminum
The use of aluminum to make bike frames has increased rapidly in recent years. In order to make
aluminum useful for mountain bike frames, an alloy had to be produced. Copper, magnesium, zinc,
manganese, silicon, and titanium were each added; all of them increased the strength of aluminum.
Aluminum has a very high resistance to breakage. However, the maximum load capacity (the amount of
pressure tolerated by a material before it becomes permanently distorted) of aluminum is not as high as that
of CrMo steel. Because of this the strength of aluminum can be increased by widening the diameter of the
wall of the aluminum tube.
The disadvantages of aluminum is that the price for high-quality aluminum is as high as the price
for steel, but depending on the method used to connect the tubes, aluminum frames require more time to
make, which in turn means that it costs more to the buyer. The tubes are either glued or screwed together
with expensive sleeves, or they're welded together. Both methods are expensive and time consuming.
Although aluminum tubing has only one-third of the rigidity of steel, when the diameter of aluminum tubes
is doubled, the amount of rigidity is not simply twice but eight times higher. Another disadvantage of
aluminum is its torsion strength. To improve the torsion strength of the aluminum the thickness of the wall
was increased, this however, defeats aluminum's weight advantage.
The advantages that aluminum tubing for bike frames are, that aluminum alloys are rust-free, they
absorb shocks five times better than steel, and they're light. Because the aluminum absorbs shock better
than steel, the result is a more comfortable ride. Because of these reasons, the aluminum tubed bike frame
is being used more and more frequently in the industry.
Titanium
This material is used most often in fighter planes, but it is now being used for mountain bike
frames. Because of its superior strength vs. its weight, the finished frame is very light and very strong. In
the past titanium turned brittle after time, resulting in small cracks when under heavy loads. The adjustment
in the combinations of the metals that were used it the alloys, titanium is now stronger than steel. The
problem with this frame material was its price and its complicated manufacturing process, but the alloy and
production problems were solved, and, together with a new welding technique, the production of titanium
frames has become much easier.
The high price of titanium is titanium's greatest disadvantage. Titanium is three times as expensive
as CrMo steel. The welding method that weakens steel and aluminum has almost no effect on titanium. In
the past it was necessary to do the welding in a vacuum chamber to protect the material against oxygen. A
good titanium alloy has approximately the same strength as steel, but it achieves only 60% of steel's rigidity.
This problem is also solved by increasing the diameter of the tube. A high torsion strength is titanium's
greatest advantage, a problem that was solved by making the walls of the tube thicker. Also, titanium is
rust-free and is 40% lighter than steel.
Carbon-Fibre
The future of mountain bike frames is in fibre and resin. The superiority of carbon tubes over steel,
aluminum, and titanium is no longer a secret to mountain bike riders. This material provides great riding
comfort, increased rigidity, and amazing shock absorption. Two types of tube stand out: round tubes that
are glued together with aluminum sleeves and one-piece Monocoque frames. Besides carbon fibre,
manufacturers are also using glass fibre, graphite fibre, Kevlar, and Spectra. It is important in the
manufacturing process that a correct, multi-directional arrangement of the fibres is made to increase the
torsion stress. Poorly made carbon-fibre tubes will fracture when exposed to heavy loads.
There are only two small disadvantages a carbon-fibre frame has. One is that it costs about four or
five times more than a steel frame, and the other is that Monocoque frames have a very limited number of
sizes. Other than those a lot better. Carbon-fibre frames are three times stronger than steel frames, and
have 35% more rigidity. They are also well protected from corrosion. Carbon tubes are 20% lighter than
steel tubes; the sleeves used for joining the tubes add some weight, however, carbon frames are still 60%
lighter than steel frames. Their excellent ability to absorb shocks (the energy flow of the shocks is diffused
by traveling from fibre to fibre) doesn't diminish the frame's rigidity. Carbon-fibre is considered to be the
ultimate material for frame tubes.
Suspension
In recent years the trend for mountain bikes is to be equipped with a suspension system.
However, it will take some time before all the problems with suspension are worked out. The high demand
for some kind of suspension is because of the heavy load that the mountain bike's material must bear. Until
now, the solution was to increase the rigidity of the frame, but strengthening the material compromised
comfort. The solution on today's mountain bikes is by adding suspension to the wheels. Suspension was
first used on racing bikes, but because of the harsh conditions a mountain bike goes through, it was only a
matter of time before a suspension system was added to the mountain bike.

Front Shock Absorbers
The front shock was the creation of Paul Turner, who engineered the "Rock Shox". This type of
suspension is similar to the suspension used for motocross forks. This suspension consists of an aluminum
fork crown with two telescoping blades that slide into each other when under pressure. The blades are
either made from aluminum or steel. The distance of the spring action is about 21/8" (5.5 cm). The degree of
tension can be adjusted. There are two ways to absorb shocks: oil-pressure or air-pressure suspension, or
with springs and oil. Plastic parts can also give good results.
Bikes that are equipped with front-wheel shock absorbers don't lose contact with the ground ,
which allows for more control, and thereby making driving at higher speeds possible. However, this
advantage only comes into play when riding at high speed, and when the shocks occur in quick succession.
Suspension prevents shocks from reaching the tire, and thereby prevents damage to the rim; rims aren't as
easily deformed. The greatest disadvantage is the change in the geometry of the bike. The steering-tube
angle gets smaller, anywhere from 2° to 2.5°; the trail gets larger, which changes the handling of the bike
from characteristically quick to a "sluggish" steering reaction. Add to this the additional weight of the shock
absorber. A fork with a shock is around 171/4 oz. to 21/4 lbs (500 to 1000 g) more than a Unicrown or
switchblade fork.
Suspension forks are particularly useful for a biker who doesn't or can't avoid obstacles and when
riding at high speeds is the goal of the rider, like in racing competition, and especially in downhill races. For
the average biker the suspension system won't become useful until the system has been improved to : 1.
Minimize geometrical changes; 2. Design the suspension in such a way that it can be turned on or off as
circumstances require; 3. Reduce weight.
Rear-Wheel Suspension
After the front-wheel suspension systems gained acceptance, it was only a matter of time before
engineers designed a suspension system for the rear-wheel. This was considered to be an ambitious
undertaking, because it meant jeopardizing the stability of the rear frame, a vital part of the frame structure.
At the end of 1990, Cannondale, Offroad, and Gary Fisher introduced the first rear-wheel suspension.
Cannondale and Offroad used similar systems. They both have elevated chain stays providing lateral sway,
with the pivot point located in the front of the seat tube. Cannondale uses an oil-pressure suspension, the
Offroad rear frame is protected against shocks by plastic devices. These suspension systems are well made
and designed, but they also contribute to some problems: Stiff wishbone construction at the rear frame
lessens lateral stability; interference with the important geometry of the rear frame by adding shock
absorbers will also cause considerable loss to the bike's lateral stability, changing the ride of the bike. Gary
Fisher installed plastic devices to absorb shocks. They're located behind the bottom bracket. Chain tension,
however, makes the rear frame more rigid (due to the lowered seat-stay position); traction is not affected.
Rear-wheel suspension is great for riding downhill, because potholes are smoothed out, and tires
are protected from severe punishment. However, uphill riding can be an ordeal when the rear of the frame
bounces with every pedal stroke. This can drain the energy from the rider quite rapidly. A bike equipped
with rear-suspension is also heavier. At this time no satisfactory solution has been found; the many
different versions are all still in the experimental stages. This technology is still recent and still has room for
improvement. A rear-wheel suspension that is standard to most bikes has not yet been found.
Gears
Shifting and drivetrain have undergone enormous evolutions. Today four different methods of
shifting gears are available: single shift, double shift, rotation-grip, and grip shift. All four of the systems are
different. The one thing that they all have in common is that they are all indexed. The functions of the front
and rear derailleurs have reached high standards, technologically and functionally. In combination with
numerous gear positions this is (at this time ) the most perfect gear shifting system. The only disadvantage
is that it needs frequent attention and adjustment.
To shift gears smoothly and silently before the invention of the indexed system was truly difficult.
It was a process of slow learning, and only professionals knew how to do it properly. The indexed system,
however, made it possible for even a novice rider to master the art of shifting gears properly and with ease.
The indexed system has a built-in mechanism that enables the derailleur to move in such a way that the
chain rests securely on the chain ring as well as on the sprockets.


Single Shifter
Today, as in the past, the single shifter is the one that most bikers prefer. It is close to the
handgrip, and top mounted, this one is the lightest (51/4 oz or 150 g) and reaches every sprocket within a turn
of 90°. This system also makes it possible to disengage the indexed system, so that in case of difficulties,
the gears and derailleur can be used manually, using the friction system. The only disadvantage is that the
position of the lever isn't ergonomically perfect. The thumb has to move up above the handlebars each time
the gears have to be shifted. However, the single shifter system is preferred for all racing bikes.
Double Shifter
For ergonomic reasons, a few of the professional mountain bike racers, moved the shifter below
the handlebars. The lever worked well of the biker pushed the lever away from himself. It was pulling it
back that was the problem. To solve this problem the double shifter was introduced in 1989. The shifter
was split into two separate levers. The lower lever moved the chain to a larger sprocket and the upper lever
moved the chain to a smaller sprocket. The whole procedure became more complicated; instead of one
movement in two directions, using one lever; now two movements, using two levers in two directions,, was
necessary. To shift gears it was necessary, even for trained bikers, to learn the whole new procedure.
despite the improved position of the shifter the double shifter system has a disadvantage; although by using
the lower lever the largest sprocket or chain ring can be reached, to shift to a smaller sprocket (to the right),
it's necessary to push the lever six or seven times, causing a slight slowdown. Although it is a minor
inconvenience for the recreational biker, it is a concern for mountain bike racers.
Rotation-Grip Shifter
Handle bars with a diameter of 7/8" (22.2 and 22.7 mm) are equipped with a 61/4" (16 cm) long
rotation grip with two or three mechanisms inside. The springs, activated by pressure, cause a mechanism
either to tighten or to loosen the gear cable. In order to shift to another gear, the grip must be rotated. A
dial lets the rider know on which sprocket the chain is riding on. Every sprocket can be reached within a
90° turn of the shifter. Later a lever inside the rotation grip was made that prevents the gears from jumping
when riding in rough terrain. Despite the perfect ergonomical placement of the shifter, it does have two
disadvantages; the increasing number of handlebar accessories leaves little room for mounting new ones,
and accidental shifting can't be totally eliminated.
Grip Shift
The "Grip Shift" is a system that can be mounted at several different places on the handlebars. A
21/8" (5.5 cm) wide by 13/4" thick rotation ring can be mounted on either the inside or outside of the grip and
used on any handlebars that have a 7/8" diameter (22,2 and 22.6). This system has an intricate system
consisting of three ring-cups that turn within each other that tightens and loosens the gear cable by pulling it
across a wedge. The only disadvantages is that a 270° turning radius is needed to reach all the sprocket.
The greatest advantage is its light weight. At only 2 oz (66 g) the "Grip Shift" is even lighter than the single
shifter. Other handlebar accessories may also be added if desired.
Front Derailleur
The front derailleur transports the chain rings. This is done by a chain guide, which can be moved
from side to side by a cable, and is moved back with a retracting spring. Indexed systems also function
with the derailleur, but still need further refinement. All too often the chain rubs against the cage and must
be adjusted at the shifter. While it is quite easy at the shifter, it's much more complicated with the rotation-
grip shifter. Adjustments don't last, and frequent attention is necessary. This is a main complaint about the
rotation-grip shifter.
Rear Derailleur
In order to accommodate the wide arrangement of the gears, the mountain bike's chain housing has
to be much longer than that of a road bike. The chain housing has to accommodate the largest sprocket.
The most popular type of mechanism is the "slant" mechanism, almost all rear derailleurs are built according
to this model. With the slant mechanism, a much better functioning shifting system has evolved because
the guide pulley "wanders" back and fort at the same distance over every sprocket.
Brakes
Brakes are the only components that haven't significantly changed in the evolution of the mountain
bike. Today, the simple cantilever brake system has proven the most reliable for off-road riding. The
future, however, belongs to disc brakes, which at this time, are still going through a trial and error period.
The concept of the disc brake is of interest for mountain bikers, because mountain biking makes such great
demands on the brakes. These demands are best served by disc brakes for three reasons: First, the amount
of space that disc brakes allow for the fat tires, so that mud accumulation won't create problems; second,
the brakes should weigh as little as possible; and third, they must function under both wet and dry
conditions. But first we have to the learn the basic, and still the most common type of brake system.
Cantilever Brakes
The best system is also a simple one, and one that works. The cantilever brake is a perfect
example. Two moveable brake arms with brake shoes are mounted on bosses that are soldered to the seat
stays, or to the chain stays. On many models both brake arms are connected by cables. At the end of the
cable, which originates at the brake lever on the handlebars, are cable carriers to which a linking wire is
attached. The link cable can be disconnected either at the left or right brake carriers. This release the
tension and allows the rear of front wheel to be removed. On newer models the brake cable, which comes
from the brake lever, is attached directly to one of the brake arms, and guided by a round cable carrier,
connected to the other brake arm.
On traditional cantilever brakes, brake arms extend rather far to the outside for the best possible
leverage. Sometimes this causes the rider's feet to come in contact with the brake arms. This problem was
solved by "Low Profile" brakes. Brake arms became longer, but the angles became much tighter. The
Pedersen cantilever brake makes use of the direction of the rim rotation to give more power to the brake
shoes. The brake shoes are pulled in the direction of the wheel's forward movement, creating a
correspondingly higher brake action. When releasing the brake shoes, a spring action pulls them back into
the neutral position, which results in an energy saving of 20%.
Brake Shoes
Most brake shoes are made from a hard, friction-resistant, special material consisting of vulcanized
rubberlike plastic, which has been constantly been improved over the years. New combinations made from
synthetic rubber and pheol ressin have increased deceleration, but overall they lose an enormous amount of
effectiveness when the rims are wet. Effectiveness when the rims are wet is the big disadvantage of all rim
brakes.
Since the rim becomes part of the brakes in cable-carrying systems, the effectiveness of the brakes
very much depends on the surface condition of the rim. The most recent rims have a layer ceramic on the
outside which have improved the effectiveness of the brakes under all weather conditions.
Hydraulic Brakes
Hydraulic brakes operate by an enclosed oil tube made from polyamide. Pressure applied to the
brake lever is transferred to a cylinder and the brake shoes. In spite of many advantages, these brakes are
being used less and less, even though the last disadvantage has been eliminated. The disadvantage was that
in order to remove the wheels, you would have to let the air out of the tires. This was solved by designing a
brake so that the brake arms could be opened up so that the wheel could be taken off with out letting the air
out.
Disc Brakes
Despite the good track record of the cantilever brake, the search for an effective disc-brake system
has started. A new bike company in California, Mountain Cycles, introduced a hydraulic "Pro Stop" disc-
brake system in 1990. Aluminum discs (located at the hub of the wheel) have brake shoes made from a
low-temperature fibre material. These brake shoes grip the disc in a "pinching" fashion. The brake shoes,
together with the aluminum disc, don't lose power under wet conditions. Power from hand pressure is
perfectly transferred to the brake shoes. These disc brakes were developed in conjunction with a front-
wheel suspension system. Their weight including fork is 53/4 lbs (2.6 kg). This system can also be mounted
on conventional Unicrown forks.
Brake Levers
The brake lever has been used ever since the mountain bike was invented. It has gone through
improvement over the years in ergonomics, size, weight, and the way it performs. The lever pulls a brake
cable, which transfers the pulling action of the brake arm of the cantilever to the brake shoe. The lever was
shortened after it was discovered that it can be operated with only two fingers. There is also a brake lever
with a roller mechanism, called the "Servo Wave". When this lever is used, the pivot point changes the
relation to the cable carrier, which causes the brake shoes to come closer to the rim. The closer the brake
shoes get to the rim, the more effective the transfer of power from the lever to the brake shoes. All
accomplished with a minimum amount of pressure applied to the brake lever at the handle bars.